Bilingualism
1 November 2006The following articles are projects of a student of Limay Polytechnic College
Bilingualism
Ability to speak two languages. It maybe acquired early by children in regions where most adults speak two languages. Children may also become bilingual by learning languages in two different social settings; for example, british children in british India learned an Indian language from their nurses and family servants. A second language can also be acquired in school.
Bilingualism can also refer to the use of two languages in teaching, especially to foster learning in students trying to learn a new language. Advocates of bilingual education in the U.S argue that it speeds learning in all subjects for children who speak a foreign language at home and prevents them from being marginalized in English-Language schools. Detractors counter that it hinders such children from mastering the language of the larger society and limit their opportunities for employment and higher education
Phrase-Structure Grammars
A phrase-structure grammar is a modification of the classical notion of a rewriting system, introduced by Axel Thue at the beginning of this century, 1914. many different notations exist to define them. A rewriting system is a finite set rules u→v, where u and v are words , indicating that an occurrence of u can be replaced by v. Noam Chomsky and rewriting system as a device for defining languages. He introduced a hierarchy of grammars. Phrase structure grammars or type 0 grammars are the most general grammars in the Chomsky Hierarchy. They are equivalent to computability. It is a fundamental. It is a fundamental result of formal language theory that the family of phrase-structure languages is equal to the family of recursively enumerable languages.
Definition: Phrase-Structure Grammar
- A phrase-structure grammar is a quadruple
G= (N, T, S, P), where
- N and T are disjoint alphabets, V=NUT
- S E N, and
- P is a finite set of ordered pairs (u, v), where u, v, e (N U T) * and /u/n≥1.
B. The elements of N are called nonterminal symbols, those of terminal symbols, those of T terminal symbols, V is the set of productions rules. (U, V) P is written in the form u→v, and u is called the left-hand side of the rule while v is its right-hand side.
∝uβ→
C. The direct derivation relation induced by G is a binary relation between words in (N U T)*, denoted and defined as:
The derivation relation induced by G, denoted is the reflexive and transitive closure of the relation
D. The Language generated by G is defined as
PREPOSITIONS
Nature of Prepositions
Prepositions are considered function or structure word which are usually followed by a noun, noun phrase, personal pronoun, or noun-substitute called the object. The preposition with object of preposition is called prepositional phrase. Here are the kinds of prepositions and some examples.
1. One-syllable prepositions
· At, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, with, etc.
Examples:
1. The balikbayan visitors stayed at Manila peninsula
2. They were received warmthly by the hotel receptionist.
3. We found out that they were here for a three-day vacation.
4. They went to Bataan.
5. They toured Intramuros with foreign visitors.
2. Two-syllable Preposition
· About, above, after, against, among, before, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond, despite, except, inside, outside, under, upon, etc.
Examples:
1. The employer will give the benefits after completion of requirements.
2. No one is above the law.
3. The secret is between us.
4. We should strive to be honest despite temptations.
5. The project will push through upon approval of the authorities.
3.- ing prepositions with a verb as a stem
· assuming, beginning, barring, concerning, considering, during, following, including, involving, pending, regarding, succeeding, etc
Examples:
1. Considering your loss, the bill will be discounted.
2. Assuming, he is innocent, the investigation should continue.
3. We will delay the examination pending approval of the supervisor.
4. True friends are tested during the most difficult times.
5. The candidates’ academic performance will be evaluated including their curricular and extra-curricular.
4. Compound prepositions
· away from, apart, from, ahead of, as for, because of, countrary to, due to, owing to, inside of, up to, together with, etc.
· on a account of, in comparison with, in lieu of, in spite of, with regard to, inform of, on behalf of, etc…
Examples:
1. We will work hard together with the members of the team.
2. The secretary attended the meeting on behalf of the president.
3. She is committed to come up to the people’s expectations in spite of demoralizing feedback.
4. There wee no comments with regard to the computerization program.
5. Gary Valenciano song another song due to insistent public demand.
There are nouns, adjectives, and verbs that are combined with prepositions which are also qualified as compound prepositions and are considered idiomatic expressions. Here are some examples with their meaning and how they are used:
1. according to- to quote somebody
2. accused of- a crime accused by a person
3. accustomed to- used to
4. acquainted with- to have a knowledge
5. breakdown- to come to a stop
6. break in- to force one’s way in
7. break loose- to free oneself
8. break up- to break in pieces; to come to an end
9. call off- to cancel
10. call up- to summon a person by telephone
CONJUNCTIONS
Nature of Conjunctions
Conjunctions are function words that connect words, phrases, or clauses. The two kinds of conjunctions are
a. coordinators b. connectors
Coordinators are join words and word groups which have the same grammatical construction. Examples of coordinators are: and, but, o, for, so, nor, yet. There is subclass of coordinators called correlative conjunctions. These are either… or, both… and, neither… nor, not (only), and whether… or.
Examples:
1. Honor, integrity, and loyalty are virtues government workers should have.
2. He worked hard but failed.
3. Should our hero be Rizal or Bonifacio?
4. She is rich and powerful yet unhappy.
5. Neither the students nor the teachers are allowed to hold a rally.
Connectors join independent clauses. They occur between coordinate independent clauses and at the end of the second clause. These are used as transition words in the sentences.
Examples:
Therefore, also, however, moreover, as a result, hence, thus, indeed, in fact, yet, consequently, accordingly, nevertheless, furthermore, on the other hand
It is important to know when to use these connectors correctly. Here is a list:
1. to express contrast: although, but, however, nevertheless, still, where as, yet, though.
2. to express continuation of thought: and, both, not only, besides, furthermore, in addition to, indeed, likewise, more over, similarly, whereby, whereupon
3. negative alternation: except that, however, instead, nevertheless, unless, until, if, on the other hand.
4. reason, result, purpose: as a result, accordingly, consequently, hence, in as much as, in order that, there by, therefore, thus
5. example: for example, indeed, in fact, namely
6. time: meanwhile, as soon as, as long as, when, since, before, after, whenever.
Examples:
1. We will remain loyal to him as long as he is in the position.
2. Indeed, it pays to be honest.
3. Besides being charming, Dr. Manly is a witty woman.
4. In addition to the list of values to be taught, I will emphasize that should be practice.
SPELLING
Correct spelling is essential in written communication. Some of us misspell words occasionally. Other misspells words quite often. But you don’t have to spend the rest of you life being a poor speller. Here’s how to spell better.
1. KEEP YOUR EYES OPEN. See how the words are constructed. Take a closer look on the parts that go to make it up.
A. take the word apart
How many S’s in:
di- integrate
di- miss
di- illusions
Each of these words has two parts. The first part is dis w/c is called a prefix− something that you place before the root word to change its original meaning. The second part is the root word. So, we add the prefix and the root word to form another word:
in + different indifferent
dis + integrate disintegrate
il + legal illegal
un + ruly unruly
im + probable improbable
Now, let’s look at the spelling of words with suffixes. The suffix is added to the end of the word to change its meaning.
Accidental + ly accidentally
Entertain + ment entertainment
Heart + less heartless
Clever + ness cleverness
Kind + est kindest
2. KEEP YOUR EARS OPEN. Listen to the correct pronunciation of the words correctly. Many words are misspelled because they are mispronounced. Proper pronunciation is an aid in correct spelling: elicit, ellicit; celery, salary; pastor, pasture; finely, finally; accept, except; counsil, counsel; statue; stature; formally, formerly.
3. Write words carefully in order to avoid errors caused by carelessness.
4. Keep a personal spelling list and study the words you frequently misspelled.
5. Learn a few spelling rules, they are great help.
A. Is it ei or ie?
When the sound is ce, ei follows c; ie follows all other letters.
Ei after c
Receive deceive
Perceive conceit
Receipt
Note these exceptions
Leisure neither
Neighbor weird
Weight
ie after other letters
Retrieve chandelier
Aggrieve cashier
Achieve
B. Dropping the final e. Nearly all e’s at the end of words are silent.
purchase owe
excite sincere
extreme amuse
If we want to add-ing; -able or any other suffixes beginning with a vowel, we usually drop the e.
love loving lovable
argue argument arguable
value valuing valuable
Exceptions:
courage courageous
outrage outrageous
advantage advantageous
notice noticeable
charge chargeable
When we add a suffix beginning with a consonant, final e is usually retained.
sincere sincerely
excite excitement
pale paleness
like likely
hate hateful
Exceptions:
whole wholly
judge judgment
acknowledge acknowledgement
But some words ending in silent e preceded by u, drop the e when adding a suffix.
argue argument
blue bluish
due duly
true truly
C. “One-Plus-one” rule
When a prefix ends with the same letter with which the root word begins, both letters are included.
Dissatisfied
Irresponsible
Unnecessary
Illegible
Immaterial
When two words are combined, the first word ending with the same letter with the second word begins, both letters are to be included.
bathhouse overrated
bookkeeping roommate
withholding
D. The Silent Partners
Be careful of words with silent letters. The correct spelling of these words depends entirely on how good your eye is. These words aren’t spelled the way they sound. Keep your eyes on them.
lamb apostle
damb pneumonia
ghost psychology
knee island
alms wreath
E. The Apostrophe(‘)
In speaking, we usually join words together. It’s a sort of natural and unconscious shortening. These shortened words are called contractions.
In writing these contractions, we inset an apostrophe(‘) where one or moe letters have been left out.
aren’t are not
can’t can not
couldn’t could not
doesn’t does not
F. The Terrible Trio
It’s You’re They’re
It’s it is
It’s raining today
The cat Lost its tail (possessive)
You’re you are
You’re my inspiration
Your grades have been released (possessive)
G. Words ending in “cede”, “sede”.
Only one word ends in sede; supersede.
Only three words end in ceed; exceed, proceed, snoceed.
All oter wods end in cede; precede, accede; intercede, etc…
1. BANAL- hackneyed, state, boring, dull
2. EAGER- avid, desirous, keen
3. RUBBISH- debris, litter, absurdness, foolishness
4. BEAUTIFUL- attractive, comely; exquisite; fair, handsome, lovely, pretty
5. FOOD- aliment, fare, nutriment
6. CLEVER- sharp, shrewd, knowing, smart, talented
7. HINDER- impede, stop, stay, halt, bar, block
8. MERRY- blithe, frolicsome, gleeful, light hearted
9. NIGGARDLY- miserly, parsimonious, tight fisted, a vicarious; stingy
10. BRAVE- courageous, fearless, intrepid, valorous, stone hearted
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